Man is a land animal, and his first and most constant industry must be the industry of the land. — Ellen Churchill Semple
4.1 Economic Activities: A Framework
Economic activities are classified by their relationship to natural resources:
| Sector | Activity | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Primary | Extraction from nature | Farming, mining, fishing, forestry |
| Secondary | Manufacturing and processing | Factories, construction |
| Tertiary | Services | Trade, transport, banking |
| Quaternary | Knowledge-based services | Research, IT, consultancy |
Primary activities are the oldest and remain vital for subsistence and export in many regions.
4.2 Agriculture
Agriculture includes crop cultivation, livestock rearing, and mixed farming.
Types:
- Subsistence — for family consumption (shifting cultivation, nomadic herding)
- Commercial — for market sale (plantation, extensive grain farming, dairy)
Factors: climate, soil, topography, irrigation, technology, land tenure, government policy
Green Revolution (1960s–70s) transformed yields in Asia through HYV seeds, fertilisers, and irrigation — but raised environmental and equity concerns.
4.3 Mining and Quarrying
Extraction of minerals (coal, iron ore, copper, gold) and building materials.
- Surface mining — open-cast, cheaper, more visible environmental impact
- Underground mining — deeper deposits, higher cost and risk
Mining regions often develop as single-industry towns with boom-bust cycles.
4.4 Fishing and Forestry
Fishing:
- Inshore/artisanal — small boats, coastal communities
- Offshore/industrial — factory ships, global trade in seafood
- Overfishing threatens marine ecosystems
Forestry:
- Commercial logging — timber, pulp
- Conservation — biodiversity, carbon storage
- Tension between exploitation and sustainable management
4.5 Pastoralism and Gathering
- Nomadic pastoralism — seasonal movement with herds (Sahel, Central Asia)
- Gathering — collecting wild plants, honey, rubber (declining due to deforestation and commercial agriculture)
Chapter Summary
- Primary activities extract resources directly from nature
- Agriculture ranges from subsistence to commercial; Green Revolution changed global food production
- Mining, fishing, and forestry face sustainability challenges
- Pastoralism and gathering persist in specific environments
- Primary sector employment declines as economies industrialise
Exercises (NCERT)
- Exercise 1 — classification of economic activities
- Exercise 2 — types of agriculture and their characteristics
- Exercise 3 — environmental issues in mining, fishing, and forestry