History is written by the victors, but archaeology speaks for the defeated as well. — Anonymous
2.1 Early States and Empires (c. 600 BCE–600 CE)
From the 6th century BCE, the subcontinent witnessed the rise of mahajanapadas (16 major states), urban centres, and new religious movements (Buddhism, Jainism). Magadha emerged as the most powerful kingdom, eventually giving rise to the Mauryan Empire (c. 321–185 BCE).
Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE) extended Mauryan rule across much of the subcontinent. His edicts (inscribed on rocks and pillars) are among the earliest written sources for Indian history, proclaiming dhamma (moral law) and administrative policies.
2.2 Coins, Inscriptions, and Historiography
Historians study this period through:
| Source | Information yielded |
|---|---|
| Coins | Rulers, dynasties, trade, iconography |
| Inscriptions | Grants, land transactions, royal titles |
| Literary texts | Arthashastra, Buddhist/Jaina literature |
| Archaeology | Settlement layers, material culture |
Sangam literature (Tamil) and Sanskrit texts (e.g. Kalidasa) illuminate social and political life in different regions.
2.3 Agrarian Expansion and Rural Society
Agriculture expanded through iron tools, irrigation (tanks, wells, canals), and land grants to brahmanas and Buddhist monasteries. The gana-sanghas (oligarchic republics) of the Gangetic plain gave way to monarchical states.
Rural society included kings, landowners, peasants, craftsmen, and labourers. The jati system was evolving, though its later rigidity had not yet fully emerged. Shrenis (guilds) organised craft production and trade.
2.4 Urban Centres and Trade Networks
Cities such as Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Mathura, and Madurai served as political, commercial, and cultural hubs. Silk Route trade connected India with Central Asia, China, and the Roman world.
Roman gold coins found in south India attest to maritime trade. Ports like Barygaza (Bharuch) and Muziris linked the subcontinent to the Indian Ocean world.
Chapter Summary
- Rise of mahajanapadas and Mauryan Empire; Ashoka's edicts as key sources
- Coins, inscriptions, and archaeology reconstruct political and economic history
- Agrarian expansion through iron technology, irrigation, and land grants
- Urban centres and trade networks linked India to wider Afro-Eurasian commerce
- Regional variations in state formation across the subcontinent
Exercises (NCERT)
- Exercise 1 — Ashoka's dhamma and its expression in edicts
- Exercise 2 — how coins and inscriptions help reconstruct early Indian history
- Exercise 3 — factors behind the growth of towns and trade (c. 600 BCE–600 CE)